CHAPTER 8. DEFINITION

8. DEFINITION
a) Its purpose- rules and fallacies as per Traditional Definition
b) Modern Definitions-kinds.

A definition is a statement which explains what a thing is. It is a statement that answers the question “What is this thing?”

In giving the definition of the term, it is presupposed that the comprehension of the term is understood, because the definition is based on its comprehension.

Real definition is one which explains & reveals complete nature of thing or object.

However, this is quite impossible since, we do not usually have a full grasp of the nature of things.

It therefore explains the normal acceptance of a simple description as definition of an object.

“Definition is an explanation of a thing, word, phrase or symbol that is used in order to explain the defined thing clearly.”

By using a definition, we explain actual things as well as abstract concepts. We can see that there are two parts in any definition. The first part consists of thing that is defined and second consists of words used to explain this thing.

These two parts have specific names in a definition.

The part of definition that is explained by rest of words is called the definindum.

The part of the definition that explains the definindum is called the definiens.

So, “a definindum is a thing, word, phrase or symbol that is defined in a definition.” whereas, “the set of words that are used to explain something, or some word or phrase or symbol are called the definiens.”

The term “definition” came from the Latin word “Definire” means, “to lay down the markers or limits.”

Definition is a conceptual manifestation either of the meaning of the term or of the formal features of an object. “ definire” meaning “ to lay down”

Thus, etymologically, to define means: Real Definition. A real definition is one which explains and reveals the complete nature of a thing or object.

However, this is quite impossible since, we do not usually have a full grasp of the nature of things. It therefore explains the normal acceptance of a simple description as definition of an object.

Purposes of Definitions

We use the method of definition in order to know things better. Yet, whenever we define, we always define anything with a purpose.

In order to understand a definition, we must first know why we define.

Let us understand the purposes of a definition. We define anything in order to;

1. Increase Vocabulary.

2. Explain anything clearly.

3. Reduce Ambiguity of word.

4. Eliminate ambiguity of any word.

5. Explain a word theoretically.

6. To Influence attitudes.

Let us see these purposes in details:

1. Increase Vocabulary.

When we are learning any new language, we need to define new words in order to know more words in the language and increase our vocabulary.

2. Explain anything clearly.

When we use any language, some words are not clear enough. At times just listening a word is not enough to understand it. So we need to define them.

3. Reduce vagueness of word.

Some times the meaning of a word depends on the context and without clearity about context, the word appears vague. Definition is necessary at such times.

4. Eliminate ambiguity of any word.

Some words have many meanings and at times are used ambiguously and one does not understand which meaning to use. At such times, definition is of help.

5. Explain a word theoretically.

We have a number of technical terms and words that cannot be understood without definition. It is a correct and clear definition that can help us understand these words and symbols and phrases correctly.

6. To Influence attitudes.

Definition also plays a very important role in the society where people gain by influencing the attitudes of others. At times for social good or for personal good, people define some words or terms in order to influence attitudes.

Rules of Definition:

definition has the power to explain something effectively only and only when the definition is perfect and complete and faultless.

Such a perfect complete faultless definition is called a good definition.

Whenever we want to define anything, we always want to give such perfect definitions, but we seldom know the basic rules of a good definition.

A good definition must follow certain rules in order to be effective.

These rules state that, a definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined.

A Definitions should avoid circularity. This means, a definition must not repeat same things in different ways without any meaning where we find that we cannot define "antecedent" without using the "consequent", nor conversely.

The definition must not be too wide or too narrow.

It must be applicable to everything to which it applies.

It must not miss anything out. Also, it must not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply. The definition must not be obscure.

Definition is used to remove obscurity, so using obscure words in definition is meaningless. A definition should not be negative where it can be positive.

These Rules of Definition can be listed as follows:

1. The definition must be clearer than the term that is being defined. The purpose of the definition is to explain and must, therefore be easy to understand. It must not contain terms which will only make it less intelligible.

2. The definition must not contain the term being defined. The definition must use other terms in defining. It is supposed to explain a particular term and is not supposed to use the same term in the explanation.

3. The definition must be convertible with the term being defined. The purpose of this rule is to make sure that the definition is equal in extension with the term being defined. The definition must not be too narrow nor too broad. If the term and the definition are equal in extension, then, they are convertible.

4. The definition must not be negative but positive whenever possible. The definition is supposed to explain what a term or object is, and not, what it is not. Only when a tern is negative should the definition be negative.

Types of Definitions

Definitions are classified into various types by various logicians. At times, some of these types differ from each other so much that they appear to be contradictory to each other. Let us see some of these types classified by these logicians.

One classification is:

1. Nominal Definition is definition which speaks about a term but not declaring anything about it. This is done by considering the origin of the term, by describing the term, by giving the synonym of the term or by citing an example that will represent the term

Classification of Nominal Definition:

a.Nominal Definition by Etymology

– attained by tracing the origin of the term.

Ex.: Fraternity came from “frater”, which means “brother”.

b. Nominal Definition by Description

– attained by describing the term.

Ex.: A rose is a flower.

c. Nominal Definition by Synonym

– it is done by giving a word equivalent to the term.

Ex.: Being kind is being benevolent.

d. Nominal Definition by Example

– it is done by citing anything that will represent the term.

Ex.: Our Chief Executive is Benigno Simeon Aquino III.

2. Real Definition declares something about the term. This kind of definition serves to explain about the nature and to distinguish it from other terms.

Classification of Real Definition

a. Real Definition by Genus and Specific Difference

- a definition that explains the essence of a term by considering the intelligible elements that make up the term.

Ex.: A triangle is a figure with three sides.

“figure” – genus, “three sides” – specific difference

b. Real Definition by Description

- It is done by stating the genus of the term but altering the specific difference by giving the logical property, which belongs to the term to be defined.

Ex.: A Police Officer is a man bestowed with authority to enforce a law.

“man” – genus, “bestowed with authority to enforce a law” – logical property

c. Real Definition by Cause

-It is attained by stating the genus of the term but altering the specific difference by tracing its cause. A cause could be its purpose, function, reason for existence, make-up or origin.

Ex.: A book is a written material made-up of several pages and is a source of information.

“written material”– genus, “source of information”– cause or reason for existence

Second classification of definitions is as follows:

DENOTATIVE DEFINITIONS try to explain the meaning of a word by mentioning at least several objects it denotes.

Although we might not view these strictly as definitions, they are, nevertheless, frequently called "denotative definitions."

Among connotative definitions, two different kinds are worth mentioning,

1. Ostensive definition,
2. Definition by partial ennumeration

Among denotative definitions, ostensive definitions stand out as especially common and useful.

1. Ostensive definitions are definitions by pointing.

When a young child wants to know the meaning of the word “dog" we are apt to point to a dog and call out the word "dog."

This is an example of an ostensive definition.

2. A second type of denotative definition worth mentioning is a definition by partial enumeration.

Definitions by partial enumeration are simply lists of objects, or types of objects, to which the word refers.

The list, "beagle," "cocker spaniel," "dachshund," "greyhound," "poodle," provides an example of a definition of dog is by partial enumeration.

While denotative definitions might not really seem much like definitions, they do ultimately attempt to convey the meaning of a word, at least indirectly.

For the hope is that by citing the objects the word refers to, the people we are talking with will come to see what that word means.

However, let's turn now to definitions in the more ordinary sense of the term.

CONNOTATIVE DEFINITIONS are usually formulated in the following three ways:

1. X is Y. Example: A bachelor is an unmarried man.
2. The word "X" means Y. Example: The word "Bachelor" means unmarried man.
3. X =DF. Y. As an example: Bachelor =DF. unmarried man.
   In all these cases the term on the left "bachelor" in the above examples is the one being defined, and we call it the "definiendum."

While we refer to the terms used to define this word "unmarried man" in our example, collectively as the "definiens."

Among connotative definitions, perhaps five different kinds are worth mentioning,

(1) persuasive definitions,

(2) theoretical definitions,

(3) precising definitions,

(4) stipulative definitions, and

(5) lexical definitions.

Let us see these definition types in details:

1. Persuasive Definitions: The purpose of a persuasive definition is to convince us to believe that something is the case and to get us to act accordingly. Frequently definitions of words like "freedom," "democracy," and "communism," are of this type. (E.g., taxation is the means by which bureaucrats rip off the people who have elected them.) While these sorts of definitions might be emotionally useful, we should avoid them when we are attempting to be logical.
2. Theoretical Definitions: Theoretical definitions explain by a theory. Whether they are correct or not will depend, largely, on whether the theory they are an integral part of is correct. Newton's famous formula "F = ma" (i.e. Force = mass x acceleration), provides a good example of such a definition.
3. Precising Definitions: Precising definitions attempt to reduce the vagueness of a term by sharpening its boundaries. For example, we might decide to reduce the vagueness in the term "bachelor" by defining a bachelor as an unmarried man who is at least 21 years old. We often encounter précising definitions in the law and in the sciences. Such definitions do alter the meaning of the word they define to some extent. This is acceptable, however, if the revised meaning they provide is not radically different from the original. Sometimes by providing précising definitions we can reduce the potential for verbal disputes that are based on a term's vagueness. When A and B begin argue about whether a bicycle is a vehicle we try to get them to recognize that term "vehicle" contains vagueness. Once they have seen this, we can make them agree to reduce it by providing a précising definition.
4. Stipulative Definitions: Stipulative definitions are frequently provided when we need to refer to a complex idea, but there simply is no word for that idea. A word is selected and assigned a meaning without any pretense that this is what that word really means. While we cannot criticize stipulative definitions for being incorrect, and so, the objection, "But that isn't what the word means" is inappropriate); we can criticize them as unnecessary, or too vague to be useful.
5. Lexical Definitions: Unlike stipulative definitions, lexical definitions do attempt to capture the real meaning of a word and so can be either correct or incorrect. When we tell someone that "intractable" means not easily governed, or obstinate, this is the kind of definition we are providing. Roughly, lexical definitions are the kinds of definitions found in dictionaries. Frequently words that are first introduced in the language as stipulative definitions become, over time, lexical definitions. (Consider, for example, Winston Churchill's famous use of the expression "iron curtain.") Besides synonymous definitions, definitions by genus and difference are perhaps the most common type of lexical definition. The essential characteristic of these definitions is we are defining the definiendum by using two terms in the definiens. For example, in the definition, "a bachelor is an unmarried man," we are defining the word "bachelor" in terms of "unmarried" and "man." In this definition the term "unmarried" is the difference, while term "man" is the genus. (The difference, or difference term, qualifies, or says what kind of thing, the genus is.)

Third classification of definition is as follows:

This list has seven kinds of definitions.

1. Stipulative Definitions stipulate, or specify, how a term is to be used.

Sometimes stipulative definitions are used to introduce wholly new terms, othertimes to restrict (or narrow) a meaning in a particular context.

The former use may be seen in the immediately preceding example, where the new term "oxycodone" is being introduced as an abbreviation (mercifully) for the mouthful "dihydrohydroxycodeinone".

2. Lexical definitions, or dictionary definitions, are reports of common usage.

Such definitions are said to be reportive or reportative definitions.

They are true or false depending on whether they do or do not accurately report common usage.

In addition, if the dictionary is published by a prestigious firm and is compiled by competent and respected lexicographers, then the definitions are normative.

The definitions both report and regulate common usage. It thus becomes possible to say of a given person that s/he is misusing a particular term.

If a person's use of a term is at great variance with how that term is regularly used, and if that person does not stipulate that the term is being used in a specialized nonstandard way, then s/he is using that term incorrectly.

3. Precising definitions are used to refine the meaning of an established term whose meaning is vague in a context and which needs improving.

4. Theoretical definitions is unique to science and philosophy and do not occur in ordinary prose. This is an overly restrictive analysis; theories are not unique to science but characterize virtually all our thinking.

5. Operational definitions explain the way in which a scientific function works. This type of definitions have disappeared in physics; occasionally, however, one will still find instances of them in psychology.

6. The definiens in a recursive definition is typically in two parts: a so-called 'basis' clause in which the definiendum does not occur, and a so-called 'inductive step' in which the definiendum does occur. At first the definition may appear to be circular since the definiendum explicitly occurs in the definiens. But the circularity is only apparent, since the basis clause offers a non-circular entry to – not a circle – but a 'chain' of an indefinite number of 'links'.

7. Persuasive definitions are simply intended to influence attitudes and generally do violence to the lexical definitions. When people begin to cite definitions in a heated argument, it is a good bet that they are making them up.

Fourth and all exhaustive classification:

In short, we can classify the definitions in the following manner:

1. Real ==== a) Ostensive, b) Extensive

2. Nominal = a) Lexical, b) Bi-verbal, c) stipulative, d) per genus et differentium

These types can be seen in details as follows:

1. Real definition: A Real definition is the definition of something that exists. This means, we can use the real definition for explaining things that exist and that can be objectively studied.

We have two sub classes of this definition type.

These are, a) Ostensive and b) Extensive. Let us see them in details:

a) Ostensive Definition is the method of defining any thing by pointing it out. When we show some object in order to define it, we use the ostensive definition.

b) Extensive definition is the definition where we give examples in order to explain something. When we want to define anything, we list out some of the members or things or types that belong to the group indicated by that word.

2. Nominal definition: A nominal definition is a definition of a word, phrase or symbol. When we wish to define or explain any word, phrase or symbol, we use this type of definition. This means, we use nominal definition when we are defining any concept created by human beings in any language of humans.

The nominal definitions have four sub-classes. These subclasses are, a) Lexical, b) Bi-verbal, c) stipulative, d) per genus et differentium.

Let us see these sub-classes in details.

a) Lexical definition gives a dictionary meaning of a word, or defines a word as it is used by any community or group of people.

b) Bi-verbal definition defines a word by using another word or a phrase by using another phrase. But if while doing this, the definition is not making the actual meaning adequately clear, the definition commits fallacy of synonymous definition.

c) Stipulative definition is given when someone is assigning a meaning to a word in order to influence attitudes of twist the actual meaning of the word. This definition may or may not tell the real nature of the word defined.

d) Per genus et differentium is the type of definition where we define a word by stating the group to which it belongs, i.e. the genus; and the factor that still differentiates the given word from rest of the group, i.e. the differentia. We use this definition when we are classifying something that is being defined and also showing that though this thing belongs to that group, it is still different from rest of the group members because it possesses some quality that makes it stand out.

Fallacies of definition.

When a definition is not appropriate, it commits a fallacy. Fallacies of definition are the various ways in which definitions can fail to explain terms. The phrase is used to suggest an analogy with an informal fallacy. "Definitions that fail to have merit because they are overly broad, use obscure or ambiguous language, or contain circular reasoning are called fallacies of definition."

The major fallacies are; overly broad or Too Wide, overly narrow or Too Narrow, Mutually exclusive definitions, Synonymus definitions, Obscure definitions, Self-contradictory definitions & circular definitions.

Fallacies in definitions are listed as follows:

1. Too Wide definition is the definition that applies to things or members to which that word actually does not apply.

2. Too Narrow definition is the definition that excludes many things to which the word being defined actually applies.

3. Mutually exclusive definitions are the definitions where we find some qualities that do not belong to the word defined. The definiens of mutually exclusive definitions list characteristics which are the opposite of those found in the definiendum. e.g. a cow is defined as a flying animal with no legs.

4. Synonyms definitions are the definitions where one word is defined by another without explaining any of them clearly.

5. Obscure definitions are definitions using inappropriate language or the language that feels odd, but does not explain anything about the word in question..

6. Self-contradictory definition occurs when the definindum used two contradictory qualities together in explaining the definiens.

7. Ambiguous definition is the definition where a word has many meanings & we are using an inappropriate meaning while defining it in some situation.

8. Figurative definition is the way to define something using decorative language. Such a language may or may not explain the word appropriately.

9. Circular definitions If one concept is defined by another, and the other is defined by the first, this is known as a circular definition where neither defenins nor definindum offers enlightenment about what one wanted to know

Limitations of definition

Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions.

A question naturally arises when we start defining things. This is, if every term of every definiens must be defined, by itself, where at last should we stop?

A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity

Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera; the so-called ten generalissima cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall.

Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined.

John Locke supposes in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms.

Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do so in another.

He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding.

Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined.

Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice".

Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that "picks out" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book Naming and Necessity.

There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the definiens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case.

The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition.

Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance.

For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term.