8.
DEFINITION
a) Its purpose- rules and fallacies as per Traditional Definition
b) Modern Definitions-kinds.
a) Its purpose- rules and fallacies as per Traditional Definition
b) Modern Definitions-kinds.
A
definition is a statement which explains what a thing is. It is a
statement that answers the question “What is this thing?”
In
giving the definition of the term, it is presupposed that the
comprehension of the term is understood, because the definition is
based on its comprehension.
Real
definition is one which explains & reveals complete nature of
thing or object.
However,
this is quite impossible since, we do not usually have a full grasp
of the nature of things.
It
therefore explains the normal acceptance of a simple description as
definition of an object.
“Definition
is an explanation of a thing, word, phrase or symbol that is used in
order to explain the defined thing clearly.”
By
using a definition, we explain actual things as well as abstract
concepts. We can see that there are two parts in any definition. The
first part consists of thing that is defined and second consists of
words used to explain this thing.
These
two parts have specific names in a definition.
The
part of definition that is explained by rest of words is called the
definindum.
The
part of the definition that explains the definindum is called the
definiens.
So,
“a
definindum
is
a thing, word, phrase or symbol that is defined in a definition.”
whereas,
“the
set of words that are used to explain something, or some word or
phrase or symbol are called the definiens.”
The
term “definition”
came from the Latin word “Definire”
means, “to lay down the markers or limits.”
Definition
is a conceptual manifestation either of the meaning of the term or of
the formal features of an object. “ definire”
meaning “ to lay down”
Thus,
etymologically, to define means: Real Definition. A real definition
is one which explains and reveals the complete nature of a thing or
object.
However,
this is quite impossible since, we do not usually have a full grasp
of the nature of things. It therefore explains the normal acceptance
of a simple description as definition of an object.
Purposes
of Definitions
We
use the method of definition in order to know things better. Yet,
whenever we define, we always define anything with a purpose.
In
order to understand a definition, we must first know why we define.
Let
us understand the purposes of a definition. We define anything in
order to;
1.
Increase Vocabulary.
2.
Explain anything clearly.
3.
Reduce Ambiguity of word.
4.
Eliminate ambiguity of any word.
5.
Explain a word theoretically.
6.
To Influence attitudes.
Let
us see these purposes in details:
1.
Increase Vocabulary.
When
we are learning any new language, we need to define new words in
order to know more words in the language and increase our vocabulary.
2.
Explain anything clearly.
When
we use any language, some words are not clear enough. At times just
listening a word is not enough to understand it. So we need to define
them.
3.
Reduce vagueness of word.
Some
times the meaning of a word depends on the context and without
clearity about context, the word appears vague. Definition is
necessary at such times.
4.
Eliminate ambiguity of any word.
Some
words have many meanings and at times are used ambiguously and one
does not understand which meaning to use. At such times, definition
is of help.
5.
Explain a word theoretically.
We
have a number of technical terms and words that cannot be understood
without definition. It is a correct and clear definition that can
help us understand these words and symbols and phrases correctly.
6.
To Influence attitudes.
Definition
also plays a very important role in the society where people gain by
influencing the attitudes of others. At times for social good or for
personal good, people define some words or terms in order to
influence attitudes.
Rules
of Definition:
definition
has the power to explain something effectively only and only when the
definition is perfect and complete and faultless.
Such
a perfect complete faultless definition is called a good definition.
Whenever
we want to define anything, we always want to give such perfect
definitions, but we seldom know the basic rules of a good definition.
A
good definition must follow certain rules in order to be effective.
These
rules state that, a
definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing
defined.
A
Definitions
should avoid circularity. This means, a definition must not repeat
same things in different ways without any meaning where we find that
we cannot define "antecedent" without using the
"consequent", nor conversely.
The
definition must not be too wide or too narrow.
It
must be applicable to everything to which it applies.
It
must not miss anything out. Also, it must not include any things to
which the defined term would not truly apply. The definition must not
be obscure.
Definition
is used to remove obscurity, so using obscure words in definition is
meaningless. A
definition should not be negative where it can be positive.
These
Rules of Definition can be listed as follows:
1.
The definition must be clearer than the term that is being defined.
The purpose of the definition is to explain and must, therefore be
easy to understand. It must not contain terms which will only make it
less intelligible.
2.
The definition must not contain the term being defined. The
definition must use other terms in defining. It is supposed to
explain a particular term and is not supposed to use the same term in
the explanation.
3.
The definition must be convertible with the term being defined. The
purpose of this rule is to make sure that the definition is equal in
extension with the term being defined. The definition must not be too
narrow nor too broad. If the term and the definition are equal in
extension, then, they are convertible.
4.
The definition must not be negative but positive whenever possible.
The definition is supposed to explain what a term or object is, and
not, what it is not. Only when a tern is negative should the
definition be negative.
Definitions
are classified into various types by various logicians. At times,
some of these types differ from each other so much that they appear
to be contradictory to each other. Let us see some of these types
classified by these logicians.
One
classification is:
- Nominal Definition is definition which speaks about a term but not declaring anything about it. This is done by considering the origin of the term, by describing the term, by giving the synonym of the term or by citing an example that will represent the term
Classification of Nominal Definition:
a.Nominal
Definition by Etymology
–
attained
by tracing the origin of the term.
Ex.:
Fraternity came from “frater”, which means “brother”.
b.
Nominal Definition
by Description
–
attained
by describing the term.
Ex.:
A rose is a flower.
c.
Nominal Definition
by Synonym
–
it
is done by giving a word equivalent to the term.
Ex.:
Being kind is being benevolent.
d.
Nominal Definition by Example
–
it
is done by citing anything that will represent the term.
Ex.:
Our Chief Executive is Benigno Simeon Aquino III.
2.
Real Definition
declares something
about the term. This kind of definition serves to explain about the
nature and to distinguish it from other terms.
Classification
of Real Definition
a.
Real Definition by
Genus and Specific Difference
-
a definition that explains the essence of a term by considering the
intelligible elements that make up the term.
Ex.:
A triangle is a
figure with three sides.
“figure”
– genus, “three
sides” – specific difference
b.
Real Definition by
Description
-
It is done by stating the genus of the term but altering the specific
difference by giving the logical property, which belongs to the term
to be defined.
Ex.:
A Police Officer is
a man bestowed with authority to enforce a law.
“man”
– genus, “bestowed
with authority to enforce a law” – logical property
c.
Real Definition by Cause
-It
is attained by stating the genus of the term but altering the
specific difference by tracing its cause. A cause could be its
purpose, function, reason for existence, make-up or origin.
Ex.:
A book is a written
material made-up of several pages and is a source of information.
“written
material”– genus, “source
of information”– cause or reason for existence
Second classification of definitions is as follows:
DENOTATIVE
DEFINITIONS try to explain the meaning of a word by mentioning at
least several objects it denotes.
Although
we might not view these strictly as definitions, they are,
nevertheless, frequently called "denotative definitions."
Among
connotative definitions, two different kinds are worth mentioning,
- Ostensive definition,
- Definition by partial ennumeration
Among
denotative definitions, ostensive
definitions stand out as especially common and useful.
1.
Ostensive definitions are definitions by pointing.
When
a young child wants to know the meaning of the word “dog" we
are apt to point to a dog and call out the word "dog."
This
is an example of an ostensive definition.
2.
A second type of denotative definition worth mentioning is a
definition by partial
enumeration.
Definitions
by partial enumeration are simply lists of objects, or types of
objects, to which the word refers.
The
list, "beagle," "cocker spaniel," "dachshund,"
"greyhound," "poodle," provides an example of a
definition of dog is by partial enumeration.
While
denotative definitions might not really seem much like definitions,
they do ultimately attempt to convey the meaning of a word, at least
indirectly.
For
the hope is that by citing the objects the word refers to, the people
we are talking with will come to see what that word means.
However,
let's turn now to definitions in the more ordinary sense of the term.
CONNOTATIVE
DEFINITIONS are usually formulated in the following three ways:
- X is Y. Example: A bachelor is an unmarried man.
- The word "X" means Y. Example: The word "Bachelor" means unmarried man.
- X =DF. Y. As an example: Bachelor =DF. unmarried man.In all these cases the term on the left "bachelor" in the above examples is the one being defined, and we call it the "definiendum."
While
we refer to the terms used to define this word "unmarried man"
in our example, collectively as the "definiens."
Among
connotative definitions, perhaps five different kinds are worth
mentioning,
(1)
persuasive definitions,
(2)
theoretical definitions,
(3)
precising definitions,
(4)
stipulative definitions, and
(5)
lexical definitions.
Let
us see these definition types in details:
- Persuasive Definitions: The purpose of a persuasive definition is to convince us to believe that something is the case and to get us to act accordingly. Frequently definitions of words like "freedom," "democracy," and "communism," are of this type. (E.g., taxation is the means by which bureaucrats rip off the people who have elected them.) While these sorts of definitions might be emotionally useful, we should avoid them when we are attempting to be logical.
- Theoretical Definitions: Theoretical definitions explain by a theory. Whether they are correct or not will depend, largely, on whether the theory they are an integral part of is correct. Newton's famous formula "F = ma" (i.e. Force = mass x acceleration), provides a good example of such a definition.
- Precising Definitions: Precising definitions attempt to reduce the vagueness of a term by sharpening its boundaries. For example, we might decide to reduce the vagueness in the term "bachelor" by defining a bachelor as an unmarried man who is at least 21 years old. We often encounter précising definitions in the law and in the sciences. Such definitions do alter the meaning of the word they define to some extent. This is acceptable, however, if the revised meaning they provide is not radically different from the original. Sometimes by providing précising definitions we can reduce the potential for verbal disputes that are based on a term's vagueness. When A and B begin argue about whether a bicycle is a vehicle we try to get them to recognize that term "vehicle" contains vagueness. Once they have seen this, we can make them agree to reduce it by providing a précising definition.
- Stipulative Definitions: Stipulative definitions are frequently provided when we need to refer to a complex idea, but there simply is no word for that idea. A word is selected and assigned a meaning without any pretense that this is what that word really means. While we cannot criticize stipulative definitions for being incorrect, and so, the objection, "But that isn't what the word means" is inappropriate); we can criticize them as unnecessary, or too vague to be useful.
- Lexical Definitions: Unlike stipulative definitions, lexical definitions do attempt to capture the real meaning of a word and so can be either correct or incorrect. When we tell someone that "intractable" means not easily governed, or obstinate, this is the kind of definition we are providing. Roughly, lexical definitions are the kinds of definitions found in dictionaries. Frequently words that are first introduced in the language as stipulative definitions become, over time, lexical definitions. (Consider, for example, Winston Churchill's famous use of the expression "iron curtain.") Besides synonymous definitions, definitions by genus and difference are perhaps the most common type of lexical definition. The essential characteristic of these definitions is we are defining the definiendum by using two terms in the definiens. For example, in the definition, "a bachelor is an unmarried man," we are defining the word "bachelor" in terms of "unmarried" and "man." In this definition the term "unmarried" is the difference, while term "man" is the genus. (The difference, or difference term, qualifies, or says what kind of thing, the genus is.)
Third
classification of definition is as follows:
This
list has seven kinds of definitions.
1.
Stipulative Definitions
stipulate, or specify, how a term is to be used.
Sometimes
stipulative definitions are used to introduce wholly new terms,
othertimes to restrict (or narrow) a meaning in a particular context.
The
former use may be seen in the immediately preceding example, where
the new term "oxycodone" is being introduced as an
abbreviation (mercifully) for the mouthful "dihydrohydroxycodeinone".
2.
Lexical
definitions,
or dictionary definitions, are reports of common usage.
Such
definitions are said to be reportive
or
reportative
definitions.
They
are true or false depending on whether they do or do not accurately
report common usage.
In
addition, if the dictionary is published by a prestigious firm and is
compiled by competent and respected lexicographers, then the
definitions are normative.
The
definitions both report and regulate common usage. It thus becomes
possible to say of a given person that s/he is misusing a particular
term.
If
a person's use of a term is at great variance with how that term is
regularly used, and if that person does not stipulate that the term
is being used in a specialized nonstandard way, then s/he is using
that term incorrectly.
3.
Precising definitions
are used to refine the meaning of an established term whose meaning
is vague in a context and which needs improving.
4.
Theoretical
definitions
is unique to science and philosophy and do not occur in ordinary
prose. This is an overly restrictive analysis; theories are not
unique to science but characterize virtually all
our thinking.
5.
Operational
definitions
explain
the way in which a scientific function works. This type of
definitions have disappeared in physics; occasionally, however, one
will still find instances of them in psychology.
6.
The
definiens in a recursive
definition
is typically in two parts: a so-called 'basis' clause in which the
definiendum does not occur, and a so-called 'inductive step' in which
the definiendum does occur. At first the definition may appear to be
circular since the definiendum explicitly occurs in the definiens.
But the circularity is only apparent, since the basis clause offers a
non-circular entry to – not a circle – but a 'chain' of an
indefinite number of 'links'.
7.
Persuasive
definitions
are simply intended to influence attitudes and generally do violence
to the lexical definitions. When people begin to cite definitions in
a heated argument, it is a good bet that they are making them up.
Fourth
and all exhaustive classification:
In
short, we can classify the definitions in the following manner:
1.
Real ==== a) Ostensive, b) Extensive
2.
Nominal
= a) Lexical, b) Bi-verbal, c) stipulative, d) per genus et
differentium
These
types can be seen in details as follows:
1.
Real
definition: A
Real definition is the definition of something that exists. This
means, we can use the real definition for explaining things that
exist and that can be objectively studied.
We
have two sub classes of this definition type.
These
are, a) Ostensive
and b) Extensive.
Let us see them in details:
a)
Ostensive Definition is
the method of defining any thing by pointing it out. When we show
some object in order to define it, we use the ostensive definition.
b)
Extensive definition
is the definition where we give examples in order to explain
something. When we want to define anything, we list out some of the
members or things or types that belong to the group indicated by that
word.
2.
Nominal definition:
A nominal definition is a definition of a word, phrase or symbol.
When we wish to define or explain any word, phrase or symbol, we use
this type of definition. This means, we use nominal definition when
we are defining any concept created by human beings in any language
of humans.
The
nominal definitions have four sub-classes. These subclasses are, a)
Lexical,
b) Bi-verbal,
c) stipulative,
d) per
genus et differentium.
Let
us see these sub-classes in details.
a)
Lexical
definition
gives a dictionary meaning of a word, or defines a word as it is used
by any community or group of people.
b)
Bi-verbal
definition
defines a word by using another word or a phrase by using another
phrase. But if while doing this, the definition is not making the
actual meaning adequately clear, the definition commits fallacy
of synonymous definition.
c)
Stipulative
definition
is given when someone is assigning a meaning to a word in order to
influence attitudes of twist the actual meaning of the word. This
definition may or may not tell the real nature of the word defined.
d)
Per
genus et differentium
is the type of definition where we define a word by stating the group
to which it belongs, i.e. the genus;
and the factor that still differentiates the given word from rest of
the group, i.e. the differentia.
We
use this definition when we are classifying something that is being
defined and also showing that though this thing belongs to that
group, it is still different from rest of the group members because
it possesses some quality that makes it stand out.
When
a definition is not appropriate, it commits a fallacy. Fallacies
of definition are
the various ways in which definitions
can
fail to explain terms. The phrase is used to suggest an analogy
with
an informal
fallacy.
"Definitions that fail to have merit because they are overly
broad, use obscure or ambiguous language,
or contain circular reasoning are called fallacies of definition."
The
major fallacies are; overly broad or Too
Wide,
overly narrow or Too
Narrow,
Mutually
exclusive
definitions,
Synonymus
definitions,
Obscure
definitions, Self-contradictory
definitions & circular
definitions.
Fallacies
in definitions are listed as follows:
1.
Too Wide definition
is the definition that applies to things or members to which that
word actually does not apply.
2.
Too Narrow definition is
the definition that excludes many things to which the word being
defined actually applies.
3.
Mutually
exclusive
definitions are the definitions where we find some qualities that do
not belong to the word defined. The definiens
of
mutually exclusive definitions list characteristics which are the
opposite of those found in the definiendum.
e.g. a cow is defined as a flying animal with no legs.
4.
Synonyms
definitions are the definitions where one word is defined by another
without explaining any of them clearly.
5.
Obscure
definitions are definitions using inappropriate language or the
language that feels odd, but does not explain anything about the word
in question..
6.
Self-contradictory
definition occurs when the definindum used two contradictory
qualities together in explaining the definiens.
7.
Ambiguous definition
is the definition where a word has many meanings & we are using
an inappropriate meaning while defining it in some situation.
8.
Figurative definition
is the way to define something using decorative language. Such a
language may or may not explain the word appropriately.
9.
Circular
definitions If one concept is defined by another, and the other is
defined by the first, this is known as a circular
definition where
neither defenins nor definindum offers enlightenment about what one
wanted to know
Limitations of definition
Given
that a natural
language such
as English
contains,
at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list
of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive
notions.
A
question naturally arises when we start defining things. This is, if
every term of every definiens
must
be defined, by itself, where at last should we stop?
A
dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of
lexical
definitions,
must resort to circularity
Many
philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The
scholastic
philosophers claimed
that the highest genera; the so-called ten generalissima
cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under
which they may fall.
Thus
being,
unity and similar concepts cannot be defined.
John
Locke
supposes
in An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding that
the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More
recently Bertrand
Russell sought
to develop a formal language based on logical
atoms.
Other
philosophers, notably Wittgenstein,
rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out
in his Philosophical
Investigations that
what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do
so in another.
He
rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a
term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation
hung in the air unless supported by another one", claiming
instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid
misunderstanding.
Locke
and Mill
also
argued that
individuals
cannot
be defined.
Names
are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and
hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not
possible when no one else is acquainted with
the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice".
Russell
offered his theory
of descriptions in
part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given
by a definite
description that
"picks out" exactly one individual. Saul
Kripke pointed
to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to
modality,
in his book Naming
and Necessity.
There
is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the
definiens
can
be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the
case.
The
examples he used include game,
number
and
family.
In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used
to provide a definition.
Rather,
the items are grouped together because of a family
resemblance.
For
terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to
state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use
of
the term.
