CHAPTER 2 TERMS

2. TERMS

a) Meaning of Terms- Connotation and Denotation of terms- Positive and Negative terms, Contrary and Contradictory terms.
b) Distinctions between – Proposition and Sentence, Proposition and Judgment, Proposition and Fact, Constituent and Component.

c) Distribution of terms- for universal, particular, affirmative and negative terms.

The TERM is a word that is independently used in logical arguments and term is word that can stand on its own and express a meaning. Naturally, all words cannot become terms. Let us see the meaning and types and classification of terms in details:

a) Meaning of Terms- Connotation and Denotation of terms- Positive and Negative terms, Contrary and Contradictory terms.

Term is a “Word” that can stand on its own and so can become a subject or predicate of proposition in logic. We know that “Word” is a meaningful combination of alphabets.

Words are classified into two types on the basis of their function of expressing or enhancing the meaning. The types of words are, categormatic & syntacategormatic.

Let us see the definitions of the types of words:

Catergormatic are the words that can express some meaning or their own, so, they can be used as terms in any proposition.

Syncategormatic are the supporting words that are used to connect or enhance the catergormatic words. i.e. Terms.

The syncategormatic words cannot express any meaning on their own, so they do not become Terms. Only categormatic words have capacity to become terms.

Any word or term differs in its meaning as per its use. Some times a word has one dictionary meaning, but is used in a different sense. This time, if we do not understand the correct meaning, we may get confused. So, we must note that the Terms have Two senses, on the basis of the meaning indicated by them. These senses are called Connotation & Denotation.

Let us see these types in details:

Connotation indicates the meaning of a word accepted by Custom or Community. Connotation is a commonly understood association that a word or phrase carries, in addition to the explicit or literal meaning of that word or phrase that is called its Denotation. Connotation is either positive or negative.

Denotation indicates the Technical Meaning of a word accepted & listed in a Dictionary. Denotation is the transition of a sign to its meaning that dictionaries try to define.

Sometimes, denotation is contracted to connotation. e.g. “You are brilliant” in sarcastic way means, “You are an Idiot!” So its Connotation becomes opposite to its Denotation, i.e. actual meanings.

The terms are seen to indicate two things, quality and quantity. Quality indicates the presence or absence of things stated while quantity indicates number of group member that possess that quality.

The terms indicate either the presence or absence of something. According to their function, they are classified in to positive and negative.

Let us see how:

Positive Term is the term which affirms some thing or quality in Something.

Negative Term is the term which denies something or quality in something.

The positive and negativeness of a term is called its quality.

The terms indicate either one individual, or a small part of group indicated by the word or the whole group indicated by the word. According to the number of individuals indicated in the term, we have singular, particular and universal terms.

Let us see how:

A singular term is a term that speaks something about one single individual person, thing or entity. The fact stated here can be either positive or negative.

A particular term is a term that speaks about a small part of the group indicated by a term. The thing spoken can be either positive or negative.

A universal term is a term that speaks about the entire group indicated by it. This statement can be either positive or negative.

The singularity, particularness or universalness of a term is called its quantity.

Generally we find that in subject predicate class membership propositions that are used in inferences, the predicate term is always universal, and we check the quantity of the subject term to classify the proposition.

On the basis of the quality and quantity indicated in terms, the terms are classified into three more types. These classifications depend on the difference in quality, or quantity or both. When only the quality is different, the terms are called contrary, when only quantity is different, the terms are called sub-alternate and when both the quality and quantity is different, the terms are called contradictory.

Let us see this classification in details:

Contrary Terms are the Terms that have the same quantity. Generally, the contrary relationship indicated the relation between two Universal terms. If the terms that are same in quantity and differ in quality, but are Particular, the relationship is called sub–contrary. In short, contrary relation exhibits the pairs of terms that are same in quantity and different in quality.

Sub alternate or sub altern terms are the terms that have the same quality but different quantity. This means, when a pair of affirmative or negative terms has one universal and one particular term, the pair indicates a sub altern relationship. This means, the universal affirmative and particular affirmative terms indicate a sub altern relationship and so do the universal negative and particular negative terms.

Contradictory Terms are the terms that differ both in Quality & Quantity. Thisx means, in a pair of two contradictory terms, if one is universal affirmative, the other will be particular negative and if one is particular affirmative, the other will be universal negative.

Table to explain opposition of terms at a glance

Type of term	Quality	Quantity
Contradictory	X	X
Contrary	X	same
Sub Contrary	X	same
Subaltern	same	X

b) Distinctions between –

Proposition and Sentence,

Proposition and Judgment,

Proposition and Fact,

Constituent and Component.

To classify the propositions and compare them further with sentence, judgment, fact and so on, we must first note the basics of an expression.

Every time when we try to express some meaningful thing, we use a language. A language is made up of alphabets and connecting punctuation symbols. The first thing we get in any language is a basic meaningful combination of alphabets. A Word is a meaningful combination of Alphabets. Then we combine these meaningful combinations of alphabets to make more sense. This time we get a sentence. Sentence is a meaningful Combination of Words. In a sentence, as per the requirement of its meaning, we also use different punctuation marks. We have many different types of sentences, but all do not have the capacity to be used in logical arguments. Only the statements that state the presence of something or absence of something, that means, only the assertive sentences, are the ones that can be used in logical arguments. These are also called statements or propositions.

Statement or Proposition is any subject less or subject predicate, relational or class membership. universal, particular or singular, simple or compound, Affirmative or negative; assertive sentence.

i) Proposition and Sentence

As we have seen above, Sentence is a meaningful Combination of Words where as, Statement or Proposition is any subject less or subject predicate, relational or class membership. universal, particular or singular, simple or compound, Affirmative or negative; assertive sentence.

So, any sentence has a power to make a meaning, but it does not have a power to be a part of an argument. On the other hand, the sentences that can be used in an inference, are called statements or propositions.

Proposition is a sentence that asserts some thing in positive or negative manner. Propositions are of two types, simple and compound. Simple statements are either subject-less or with a subject and predicate. In either case, the verb seen in simple statements is only one. On the other hand, when two or more simple statements are combined together & form a statement we get compound statement.

ii) Proposition and Judgment

Proposition is a statement that states a matter of fact. It does not carry any opinion or view of the person making the statement. It just states what is. This means, a proposition or statement states only pure undiluted non-tampered facts without and smell of right and wrong, good or bad, proper or improper, desirable or undesirable, nice or not nice etc. etc.

Judgment is a statement Expressing the Opinion or View of Someone about some event or situation. This view may or may not indicate the fact or truth. Those who give a judgment, state if something is good or bad, right or wrong, and desirable or undesirable. This means, what they say, is not what is, but what they feel. In logic, we value what is, and not what we feel. So, proposition is something that is used in logic and not judgement.

Iii) Proposition and Fact.

Fact is the Actual Event or Things that can be objectively verified by any one. This means, fact is never true or false, right or wrong. Fact is just fact. Just as we do not need any one's opinion to check what is the time right now, watch in hand tells it to anyone, we need not check whether fact is true or not. It is always true.

Proposition is statement that states something as a matter of fact. This means, though the proposition is stating something, it may or may not be agreeing with actual fact. Sometimes, a statement says something as a matter of fact, but is actually not so, like, in a statement, “Chintu met a man who had a tail and two horns on his head.” here, the proposition is stating something as a fact, but actually, it is an imagination that is contrary to fact. The argument based on such statement may be logically correct, but still may not be stating facts.

iv) Constituent and Component

This is like any other thing or class, every proposition has two main parts.

One is the part without which a statement cannot stand. This is the constituent.

The other is a part that enhances the statement, but the statement can still stand without this part. Such part is called a component.

In short, constituent is like the vital parts of a person without which one cannot be alive, while, components are like the body parts, without which, one may be disabled, incomplete or handicapped, but still will be alive.

Exactly like that, a proposition can become a proposition just because a constituent, and that proposition gets enhanced in the presence of its components.

So, a Constituent is the integral part of any proposition and gives meaning to the proposition, without which the proposition cannot exist.

Component is the part of a proposition that enhances the proposition by adding itself to the constituent, but which can be detached from the proposition without extinguishing the existence of the proposition.

100. Distribution of terms - universal, particular, affirmative, negative terms.

Distribution of Terms : When we state something about the entire group indicated by the Terms, the Term is distributed. In a universal proposition Subject is Distributed and in a negative proposition Predicate is Distributed.

Quantity of Proposition : It is the quantity of the group of the subject of a proposition. This is of two types. Universal & Particular. The Universal quantity distributes the subject not the particular.

Quality of Proposition : - It is the quality of the Predicate of the proposition. This is affirmative or negative. Affirmative says that subject or its group belongs to the group of predicate. Here the predicate terms is not distributed. Negative quality says that the subject or its group does not belongs to the group of predicate. Here the predicate is distributed.

TABLE explaining the DISTRIBUTION of terms

Type	S	P
A	Universal	Affirmative
E	Universal	Negative
I	Particular	Affirmative
O	Particular	Negative

 For the proposition types:

A   S X

E   S P

I    X X

O  X P